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Risk Controversy Series
General Editor, Laura Jones
The Fraser Institute’s Risk Controversy Series publishes a number
of short books explaining the science behind today’s most pressing
public-policy issues, such as global warming, genetic engineer-
ing, use of chemicals, and drug approvals. These issues have two
common characteristics: they involve complex science and they
are controversial, attracting the attention of activists and media.
Good policy is based on sound science and sound economics. The
purpose of the Risk Controversy Series is to promote good policy
by providing Canadians with information from scientists about
the complex science involved in many of today’s important policy
debates. The books in the series are full of valuable information
and will provide the interested citizen with a basic understand-
ing of the state of the science, including the many questions that
remain unanswered.
Centre for Studies in Risk, Regulation,
and Environment
The Fraser Institute’s Centre for Studies in Risk, Regulation, and
Environment aims to educate Canadian citizens and policy-mak-
ers about the science and economics behind risk controversies.
As incomes and living standards have increased, tolerance for the
risks associated with everyday activities has decreased.
While this decreased tolerance for risk is not undesirable, it has
made us susceptible to unsound science. Concern over smaller
and smaller risks, both real and imagined, has led us to demand
more regulation without taking account of the costs, including
foregone opportunities to reduce more threatening risks. If the
costs of policies intended to reduce risks are not accounted for,
there is a danger that well-intentioned policies will actually reduce
public well-being. To promote more rational decision-making, the
Centre for Studies in Risk, Regulation, and Environment will focus
on sound science and consider the costs as well as the benefi ts of
policies intended to protect Canadians.
For more information about the Centre, contact Kenneth Green,
Director, Centre for Studies in Risk, Regulation, and Environment,
The Fraser Institute, Fourth Floor, 1770 Burrard Street, Vancouver,
BC, V6J 3G7; via telephone: 604.714.4547; via fax: 604.688.8539; via
e-mail: keng@fraserinstitute.ca
Misconceptions about
the Causes of Cancer

Copyright ©2002 by The Fraser Institute. All rights reserved. No
part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever
without written permission except in the case of brief passages
quoted in critical articles and reviews.
This publication is based on Gold, L. S., Slone, T. H., Ames, B. N.,
and Manley, N. B. (2001), Pesticide residues in food and cancer
risk: A critical analysis, in Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (R. I.
Krieger, ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 799–843, Academic Press, New York; and
Gold, L. S., Ames, B. N., and Slone, T. H. (2002), Misconceptions
about the causes of cancer, in Human and Environmental Risk
Assessment: Theory and Practice (D. Paustenbach, ed.), pp. 1415–
1460, John Wiley & Sons, New York. It was updated and adapted
for Canada by the authors.
The authors of this book have worked independently and opinions
expressed by them are, therefore, their own and do not neces-
sarily refl ect the opinions of the members or the trustees of The
Fraser Institute.
Printed in Canada.
National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Main entry under title:
Misconceptions about the causes of cancer / Lois Swirsky Gold . . .
[et al.]; general editor, Laura Jones.
(Risk controversy series ; 3)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-88975-195-1
1. Cancer Environmental aspects. 2. Cancer Etiology.
I. Gold, Lois Swirsky, 1941- II. Centre for Studies in Risk and
Regulation. III. Series.
RC268.25.M57 2002 616.99’4071 C2002-911284-2
iv | The Fraser Institute
The Fraser Institute | v
Contents
About the authors / vii
Acknowledgments / ix
Foreword / xi
Summary / 3
Misconception 1—Cancer rates are soaring
in the United States and Canada / 5
Misconception 2—Synthetic chemicals
at environmental exposure levels are an
important cause of human cancer / 7
Misconception 3—Reducing pesticide
residues is an effective way to prevent
diet-related cancer / 15
Misconception 4—Human exposures to
potential cancer hazards are primarily
to synthetic chemicals / 23
vi | The Fraser Institute
Misconception 5—The toxicology of synthetic
chemicals is different from that of natural
chemicals / 27
Misconception 6—Cancer risks to humans
can be assessed by standard high-dose
animal cancer tests / 31
Misconception 7—Synthetic chemicals pose greater
carcinogenic hazards than natural chemicals / 43
Misconception 8—Pesticides and other synthetic
chemicals are disrupting hor mones / 87
Misconception 9—Regulation of low, hypothetical
risks is effective in advancing public health / 89
Glossary / 91
Appendix—Method for calculating
the HERP index / 97
References and further reading / 99
The Fraser Institute | vii
About the authors
Lois Swirsky Gold is Director of the Carcinogenic Po-
tency Project and a Senior Scientist, University of California,
Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. She
has published 100 papers on analyses of animal cancer
tests and implications for cancer pre vention, interspecies
extrapolation, and risk assessment methodology. The Car-
cinogenic Potency Database (CPDB), published as a CRC
handbook, analyzes results of 6000 chronic, long-term
cancer tests on 1,400 chemicals. Dr. Gold has served on the
Panel of Expert Reviewers for the National Toxicology Pro-
gram, the Boards of the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis,
and the Annapolis Center, was a member of the Harvard
Risk Management Group and is a member of the Advisory
Committee to the Director, National Center for Environ-
mental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC). She is among the most highly cited scientists in her
fi eld and was awarded the Annapolis Center Prize for risk
communication. E-mail: cpdb@potency.berkeley.edu
Thomas H. Slone has been a scientist on the Carcinogenic
Potency Project at the University of California, Berkeley and
at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for 17 years. He
has co-authored many of the principal publications of the
project. E-mail: cpdb@potency.berkeley.edu.
viii | The Fraser Institute
Neela B. Manley has been a scientist on the Carcinogenic
Potency Project at the University of California, Berkeley
and at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for 13 years.
Dr. Manley works on developing the Carcinogenic Potency
Database and has co-authored many papers on the project.
E-mail: cpdb@potency.berkeley.edu.
Bruce N. Ames is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecu-
lar Biology and is a Senior Scientist at Children’s Hospital
Oakland Research Institute. He was the Director of the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Center,
University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences and was on their Commission
on Life Sciences. He was a Member of the National Cancer
Advisory Board of the National Cancer Institute (1976–1982).
He developed the Ames test for detecting mutagens. Among
numerous honors, he is the past recipient of the Japan Prize
and the US National Medal of Science. His more than 460
publications have resulted in his being among the few hun-
dred most-cited scientists (all fi elds). E-mail: BNAmes@UCL
ink4.Berkeley.edu.
The Fraser Institute | ix
Acknowledgments
We thank the many researchers who have provided data
and opinions about their work for development of the
Carcinogenic Potency Database, as well as numerous col-
leagues who have given exposure assessment informa-
tion for the development of the HERP table and have pro-
vided comments on this work over many years. The work
of co-authors of earlier papers contributed signifi cantly
to this analysis, including particularly Leslie Bernstein,
Jerrold Ward, David Freedman, David W. Gaylor, Richard
Peto, Margie Profet, and Renae Magaw. We thank Howard
Maccabee for reviewing the manuscript. We also thank Kat
Wentworth for administrative and technical assistance.
This work was supported by a grant from the Offi ce of
Biological and Environmental Research (BER), US Depart-
ment of Energy, grant number DE-AC03-76SF00098 to L.S.G.
at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; by the National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Center Grant
ESO1896 at the University of California, Berkeley; and by a
grant for research in disease prevention through the Dean’s
Offi ce of the College of Letters and Science, University of
California, Berkeley to LSG and BNA.
x | The Fraser Institute