Set lighting technician''s handbook

Preface
TERMINOLOGY
Imagine that your mother visits you on the set. You introduce her to the gaffer, who she says seems
like a nice fellow—that is, until he starts giving orders: “Hang a baby. Kill the midget and have two
blondes standing by for the martini.”
The set lighting profession uses volumes of peculiar-sounding technical terms. In this book, terms
are explained the first time they are used and can also be found in the glossary. You will find, how-
ever, that the same equipment has different names from country to country, city to city, and studio
lot to studio lot. An obie light is called a basher in England. In Jamaica, a scrim is known as a
strainer, but here we often simply call it wire. A wall sled is called a Grumpy at Paramount Studio
(the name people around the lot bestowed on its inventor). There are even a few common terms that
are difficult to use in polite conversation.
People who work in rental houses will act as if you are out of your mind if you call something by a
name different than that with which they are familiar. This can be frustrating when working out of town
with a new rental house. Sometimes technicians are far more familiar with the nickname for a piece of
gear than they are the proper name. To make matters even more unpredictable, terms change over time
and are constantly being invented and evolving. I adopted the terms that, in my experience, are most
universally used, but you will no doubt run across many other names that do not appear here.
TWO DECADES OF TRANSITION IN THE LIGHTING INDUSTRY
The practices of lighting technicians in film and television production have undergone many trans-
formations since the summer of 1991, when I first began making notes for what eventually became
the first edition of this book. At that time, the conversion from vintage DC distribution equipment to
AC was still taking place. Lots of different distribution systems had popped up; there was no domi-
nant standard for connectors and junction boxes. SCR dimmers were suddenly becoming a big part
of motion picture lighting for the first time, bringing with them the attendant issues of harmonic cur-
rents that overheat transformers. Electronic HMI ballasts were experiencing a troubled adolescence,
but were beginning on a path toward greater reliability. At that time there was little or no formal
training for lighting technicians. Electricians leaned from each other on the job. For many old-school
electricians three-phase AC systems, power factor, current harmonics and even grounding, were new
concepts. At that same time, a much larger percentage of production in Los Angeles was non-union.
Necessity being the mother of invention, these more thrifty productions spawned many innovative
lighting techniques that have since become common practices, but they also often resorted to meth-
ods that were actually quite foolhardy and potentially hazardous. One way and another there was a
great deal of confusion and misinformation being circulated. It was in this context that I first under-
took writing a book for lighting technicians in the film and television industry, with the goal of thor-
oughly researching the many issues I was aware of, in order to offer lighting technicians an
authoritative source of information and guidance.
xvii
The forces at work started to spur change in the motion picture industry. There was pressure from
electrical inspectors. There was a desire from the manufacturing sector to settle on legal, reliable
standards. And there was a realization among employers that sketchy informal training left them
open to liability. These forces all began to push the industry in the direction of stricter and more for-
mal rules and guidelines. It was a few years later that the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television
Producers (AMPTP) redoubled its efforts to provide proper training for its workforce. Federal OSHA
regulations require employers to provide training for certain kinds of work especially those that are
potentially hazardous. Up until that point technicians had little or no formal training about safety
hazards, yet they were rigging lights to aerial lifts, operating heavy machinery, working in the cat-
walks high above the stage floor, and connecting up large electrical distribution systems. Contract
Services Administration Trust Fund (CSATF) is a nonprofit organization funded by contributions
from producers who are signatories of a collective bargaining agreement with the International Alli-
ance of Theatrical and Stage Employees (IATSE) (based on hours worked by covered employees).
CSATF is administered by a board of trustees appointed by the Alliance of Motion Picture and Tele-
vision Producers (AMPTP). This is how producers have arranged to provide training to an essentially
freelance workforce in order to meet OSHA requirements and create a safer work environment. The
second edition of this book was formally adopted by Local 728 (Hollywood Set Lighting) as part of
that effort.
In the past ten years Contract Services has vastly expanded and improved their Safety Training
program to include the Safety Pass program, required for all employees, and it also partially funds
Local 728’s voluntary Skills Training program. This edition of the Set Lighting Technician’s Hand-
book is designed to be a primer and a reference for some of the topics covered in the training
program.
This book has existed in a time frame spanning a massive shift toward greater awareness and
education for lighting technicians. To some extent, it has been a part of that shift. In this edition
you will find a great many changes to the book, which are a result of the formalization of training
and rethinking of safety that has occurred in the last decade. Practices that were once casually
accepted are now carefully controlled. Things like using flammable materials or non-UL-listed parts
and equipment, procedures for tying-in to electrical panels, use of electricity around water and in
damp locations: these are just a few of the areas where training and formalization of practices (not
to mention the efforts of equipment manufacturers to bring us new solutions) has greatly improved
the safety of our daily work. Woven throughout this edition are the latest guidelines of many differ-
ent safety and regulatory organizations, including: the National Electrical Code, OSHA, Fire and
Building Codes, studio safety departments, the CSATF Safety Pass Training and Safety Bulletins,
ESTA recommendations for safe practices and standards, as well as the safety recommendations
of equipment manufacturers. To the extent possible, I have sought to make sure that the practices
discussed here are all fully compliant with current standards and training.
xviii Preface
Companion Web site
The book now has a companion Web site, which includes many new articles on advanced topics that
could not fit in this volume. It also includes archived material that appeared in previous editions,
photos, and helpful links.
Please take care to type the URL exactly as it appears here:
http://booksite.focalpress.com/box/setlighting/
For initial access, the Web site requires the use of the following access code:
setlighting
Once registered, you will be prompted to create your own password for subsequent access to
the site. Please mark this for your records.
xix
Acknowledgments
The fourth edition of the Set Lighting Technician’s Handbook marks a big step forward. In writing this
edition, I was very fortunate to have the support of many top professionals in production as well as
distinguished experts in the manufacturing sector. The insights and perspective they offered made it
possible for me to write a well-rounded book about many exciting technologies. I am very grateful
to Mike Bauman for his kind input and terrific photographs. In recent years, Mike has blazed a
path embracing some of the most technologically advanced lighting solutions. I owe a debt of thanks
to Richard Cadena, Scott Barnes, Josh Thatcher, Jeff Levi, and John Amorelli for their input on the
subject of lighting control technology and moving lights. Thanks to Mike Wood (Mike Wood Consult-
ing), Rob Gerlach (Selador/ETC), Ryan Fletcher (ARRI), David Amphlett (Gekko), Jim Sanfilippo
(NILA), Richard Lund (Philips), and Lee Ford Parker (JiffyFX.com) for their valuable contributions
to the new chapter on LEDs. Thanks to the terrific team at ARRI Lighting—John Gresch, Mike Jones,
Aeron Weller, and An Tran—for their continuing support, and contributions especially in regard to
HMI troubleshooting. The dazzling cover photo of this edition is by An Tran. Other experts in the field
helped shape this new edition: Steve Terry (ETC), Michael Lay (Strand) lent their expertise on dim-
ming; Bob Cookson (Illumination Dynamics) Russle Saunders (Saunders Generators) and Ron
Dahlquist (Dadco) on transformers and generators; John Parkinson (Power To Light), Paul Tipple
and Phil Ellems (Power Gems) on HMI electronic ballasts; Stewart Lennox (battery packs) and Guy
Holt on small generators; Michael Skinner on entertainment industry applications of the National
Electrical Code; Andy C. Huber on underwater lighting; and my old friend and colleague Brian
O’Kelley lent an AD’s perspective to the opening chapter. Other lighting professionals who contribu-
ted include Erik Messerschmitt, Mike Ambrose, Dave Devlin, Dwight Campbell, Martin Weeks, and
many others. My thanks to the Local 728 Safety Training Program and Contract Services, especially
Allan Rowe, whose comprehensive work developing Skills Training courses for Local 728 plays no
small part in helping the membership remain the best trained, most experienced lighting technicians
in the world. My sincere thanks to the many individuals who gave me feedback and suggestions for
this edition: Daniel Aleksic, David E. Elkins, John Gates, Michael Hofstein, Seth Jason, and Stephen
Lighthill.
I gratefully acknowledge the many manufacturers who provided technical information, photo-
graphs, and illustrations. The manufacturers are listed in Appendix F.
This book was first published in 1993. I am deeply indebted to many individuals for their gener-
ous contributions to this book over the years: Darryl Murchison, whose discussions during the early
stages of writing the first edition helped set the book on course; Doug Pentek, Earl Gilbert, Larry
Parker, Cyrus Yavneh, Russ Brandt, Dean Bray, Frieder Hochheim, Herb Breitling, Michael
Kaiping, Scott Toland, and Jon Bart, all of whom read and improved sections of the book in its first
and second editions; Richard Mula and Pete Romano, who shed much light on the subject of under-
water lighting; Frank “the Dinosaur” Valdez and Gary Scalzo, who lent their expertise to the section
on rigging; and Vance Trussell, whose suggestions and ongoing interest and encouragement were
invaluable to me. My thanks to Eric King, who shared his expertise on HMIs and electronic ballasts.
My thanks to Bernie Kret at Strand, who helped upgrade the section on electronic dimmers for the
second edition. I owe a debt of gratitude to Chris Barratt, without whose generosity and vast
xxi
experience I could not have created the new section on generator troubleshooting, and whose legacy
lives on despite his passing.
A special note of thanks to the illustrators, Shawn Murphy and Lisa Cyr, who created the hand-
drawn illustrations for the first edition and who may well have been inking drawings on their wed-
ding night to make the publication deadline. Praise also goes to the talents of John Huey, who
created additional artwork for the second edition. For new illustrations in the third edition, I thank
Dan Haberkorn. Thanks to my dear friend and colleague Mark Doering-Powell for his advice and
artwork in the section on blue-screen photography. Thanks to Laura Mancini for modeling for the
book, and to Keith Morgan, for lending a hand (and a couple of very nice lights). My thanks also
to Doug Pentec and Carly Barber of Hollywood Rental and Robert Guzman of Concept Lighting
for the use of their rental equipment in creating the artwork in the first edition, and Debra at
Cineworks for use of equipment for artwork added in the third edition.
More than ever, I am grateful to the team at Focal Press—my editor Michele Cronin, Elinor
Actipis, and Marie Lee, whose help, support, and buoyant optimism helped me see this through.
I am thankful, once again, to Joan Box, my faithful and talented (unofficial) copyeditor who has
taken an interest in my writing since I was first able to form letters. It is a true testament to a mother’s
love that she endures all this techno mumbo-jumbo, but it is always a joy to work together on it.
Big, big, ginormous thanks, finally, to my loving wife Stacey, who is officially completely sick of
this book at this point, and with good reason. Thank you for your patience and support. I love you
with all my heart.
xxii Acknowledgments
CHAPTER
Set basics: Your first barbecue
1
All the technical aspects of filmmaking—film stocks, cameras, lighting, sound, effects—involve a
myriad of small details that, taken as a whole, seem impossibly complex. As with any craft, to
become a master requires years of experience and exposure to many different situations. It has been
my experience, however, that no single piece of equipment, procedure, or technique is really compli-
cated; there is no one thing that cannot be explained and understood in less than 10 minutes. Making
movies is the artful application of millions of relatively simple details. This book helps with some of
those details, describing procedures that save time and promote safety, clarifying aspects of the craft
that are confusing and often misunderstood, and supplying a wealth of information about the
hundreds of gadgets of which lighting technicians are so fond.
Starting with the basics, we begin with a summary of the role of the lighting crew on a film set.
JOB DESCRIPTIONS OF THE LIGHTING CREW
The electric, grip, and camera departments fall under the direction of the director of photography (DP).
The gaffer and key grip are the DP’s lieutenants. The gaffer is the head of the electric department, in
charge of the lighting crew. The gaffer’s crew consists of a best boy electric and the set electricians.
Director of photography
Q: How many directors does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
A: One; no, two . no, no one.
The DP is the director’s right hand; he or she is the one who helps the director make all the hard
decisions. It is the DP’s responsibility to create on film what the director has envisioned for each
scene; to evoke the proper time, place, and atmosphere by means of lighting; and to help choose
camera angles and camera movement that will be most effective in telling the story and covering
the scene. He or she designs the lighting, balancing realism against the dramatic potential of more
stylized effects, as called for by the script and the director. It is often incumbent on the DP to pho-
tograph particular actors with special care in order to maintain their screen persona. The DP must
maintain proper screen direction (a responsibility shared with the script supervisor) and lighting con-
tinuity between setups so the film can be edited seamlessly. The DP has a say in the design and color
of the sets and the wardrobe and in the selection of locations. The DP works closely with the assis-
tant director (AD) to schedule scenes at the right time of day for the best light. The DP usually
shoots tests prior to the beginning of photography. He or she may experiment with various lighting
Set Lighting Technician’s Handbook, 4e. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-240-81075-1.00001-5
© 2010 Published by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
effects, with different gel colors, with film stocks and special lab processes or different filter combi-
nations, looking for a combination of effects that accomplishes the special requirements of the script.
The DP may also conduct his or her own research prior to production to ensure the authenticity of a
period look and to inspire ideas for the cinematography.
The DP holds a position of immense responsibility, creatively and financially. The producer and
director both depend on the DP to achieve photographic excellence within the constraints of the
production’s budget and schedule. The DP always faces conflicts in fulfilling the needs of the script,
director, schedule, and budget and meeting his or her own aspirations for the photography. The
lighting crew fights the DP’s battles on the front lines. Their ability to light the set quickly and
efficiently directly affects the DP’s ability to produce great work and do it on a schedule.
Gaffer
Q: How many gaffers does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
A: How many do we have on the truck?
The gaffer is the chief lighting technician (CLT), the head of the lighting department. He or she works
directly with the DP to implement the lighting plan and help achieve the photographic look of the film.
The DP, the gaffer, and the key grip attend preproduction meetings together and scout the locations
where filming is to take place. They discuss the DP’s approach to each scene and determine what lighting
preparations and equipment are required. Gaffers are problem solvers. They often have to design a spe-
cial rig, fabricate a gadget, or implement technology in some idiosyncratic way to give the DP something
he or she is looking for, or to provide time efficiency during production. It falls to the gaffer and key grip
to research possible solutions, source the materials, design all the specifics, and if necessary, present
the plan to the DP and to the production manager for approval, and then see the plan to fruition.
On the set, the gaffer is responsible for the execution of the lighting scheme and the organization
and operation of the lighting crew. The DP and the gaffer discuss the lighting. Typically, when talk-
ing about the actor’s lighting, the DP may specify the placement of each fixture to accomplish a par-
ticular effect. Sometimes the DP may leave it to the gaffer to translate general ideas into specifics.
The DP may express the goals in terms of the motivating sources of light for the scene, the mood,
and the f-stop at which to shoot. The gaffer then instructs the crew and sees to the exact placement
and focus of each light to accomplish the DP’s instructions. Typically, once the gaffer has executed
the lighting, the DP will “sweeten” it to taste, with a few adjustments.
The gaffer must have a very strong eye for lighting and a solid knowledge of which lights to use to
create any desired effect. As the lighting starts to come together, the gaffer functions as a second pair of
eyes for the DP, always on the lookout for problems—inadequate light, overexposure, hot spots, ugly
shadows, and so on. Together, the DP and gaffer look for opportunities to make the scene look more
interesting. A first-rate gaffer has a critical eye for the balance of light and shade, the modeling of facial
features, and the separation of foreground from middle ground and background. The gaffer, carrying
light meters on a belt, often stands next to the DP at the camera to view and measure the light hitting
the subject and to consult with the DP on issues of fill ratio and balance of exposure.
A very important part of the gaffer’s job is organizing and running the lighting operations. He or
she must constantly be cycling through the many tasks at hand, pushing forward the progress of each
project, keeping an eye on the performance of the lighting crew, thinking ahead so that the electri-
cians will have power and lights readily at hand for subsequent shots, and forestalling delay.
2 CHAPTER 1 Set basics: Your first barbecue
The gaffer should never have to leave the immediate area in which the action is being filmed. He
or she must rely on the crew to be close at hand to make lighting adjustments and fetch equipment
when it is needed. Once the lighting is complete, the grips and electricians clear the set, but remain
nearby, in case a tweak is called for between takes. Because the lighting crew is always under time
pressure, an electrician who stays near the action, listens, and thinks ahead can do a lot to help the
gaffer and DP win their daily battle against time.
Best boy electric
The best boy electric is the gaffer’s chief assistant. He or she is in charge of personnel and equipment
for the electrical department—a vital role in the smooth running of the lighting crew. One of the best
boy’s duties is scouting locations with the gaffer, making scouting notes to help the gaffer compile
the list of equipment needed. The best boy supervises the load-in (loading electrical equipment into
the truck at the rental house before the first day of production), organizes the equipment and supplies
in the truck for easy access, makes sure that no equipment gets lost at each location, keeps track of
damage, makes repairs, performs maintenance, and supervises the load-out after the last day of pro-
duction. The best boy keeps track of gels and expendables, and coordinates equipment orders,
returns, subrentals, and special orders with the production department and transportation departments
as necessary. The best boy is in charge of hiring and laying off extra electricians when needed. The
best boy supervises the electrical crew’s startup paperwork and time cards. When there is no rigging
gaffer hired, the best boy may also plan the routing of the feeder cable and supervise the distribution
of electrical power to the lights.
Most important, the best boy is the emissary of the electrical department, communicating and
coordinating with other departments, with the fire marshal, and with rental houses and other equip-
ment suppliers. A best boy who maintains good relations with each department can get cooperation
when it is needed. For example, when the best boy needs to put a light on the roof of a building, the
locations team must make the necessary contacts to secure that spot. When the best boy needs some
extra equipment delivered quickly, his or her relationships with the transportation department and the
contact at the rental house come into play. The best boy’s diplomacy is key.
Electricians
Q: How many electricians does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
A: It’s not a bulb, it’s a globe.
Electricians are affectionately known as juicers or sparks and are officially titled set lighting techni-
cians or lamp operators. The electrician’s primary responsibility is placing and focusing lights
according to the wishes of the gaffer. At each location, the electricians unload and reload the lighting
equipment from the trucks, run cabling, and run the distribution of electrical power for the lights. On
the set, electricians are responsible for placing and focusing (aiming) the lights; manipulating the
intensity, direction, color, and quality of light; wiring practical lamps (such as table lamps and wall
sconces), switches, and wall outlets on constructed sets; and anticipating the needs of the gaffer so
that equipment is at hand when needed. Electricians usually take responsibility for securing lights
and stands for safe use; however, the grip department also plays a role, such as hanging pipe or truss
for the lights, securing a stand with straps, or screwing it down with grip-chain.
3Job descriptions of the lighting crew
There is a Zen to the job of the lamp operator. An experienced lamp operator handles the
equipment with deft speed and economy of movement that comes with familiarity. Through
the exchange of a few words or hand signals, or by clairvoyance, the electrician grasps the gaffer’s
intention and manipulates the lamp to create the desired effect. His or her focused concentration is on
two things: the activities of the lighting crew and the behavior of the light. The lamp operator is
constantly attentive to the DP and gaffer and to fellow electricians who might need a hand. Simul-
taneously, the electrician is aware of the light falling, blasting, leaking, and spilling onto the faces
and the surfaces around the set.
The set lighting crew may be asked also to provide power for fellow crew: camera, sound, dolly,
and video village. Electricians typically relinquish responsibility for powering vehicles at the base
camp to the transportation department. Although powering the base camp is technically within the
union jurisdiction of lighting technicians (who are trained to handle electrical distribution), most
of the time the gaffer simply does not have the personnel to spare for anything extraneous to the
set. Movie electricians are very rarely licensed journeymen or master electricians. They are not
qualified to wire buildings or work on power lines. Their job is lighting movies.
Rigging crew
A rigging crew is an important part of almost any project, be it a feature, episodic TV series, or even a
television commercial. The rigging crew works ahead of the main unit, installing cable and dis-
tribution, hanging lights, and taking care of any work that will be time-consuming for the main unit
to accomplish on the day of filming. This may involve weeks of work to rig a major set, or half a
day laying in some cable on location. A rigging crew consists of a rigging gaffer, rigging best boy,
and rigging electricians. A rigging crew is invaluable to a production, especially to the DP and gaffer.
The thought, planning, and careful, unrushed work, testing, and troubleshooting put in ahead of time
translates into smooth sailing for the shooting crew. A properly rigged set means that the lighting will
look better, the onset electricians can work with greater efficiency, and the director will be left with
more time to get the day’s shots. The rigging crew usually also wraps out the set after the first-unit
crew has finished with it. The electric rigging crew works in tandem with the grip rigging crew.
The fixtures guy
On a production for which a lot of practical fixtures and outlets are to be wired, it is valuable to have
a fixtures guy (or gal). The fixtures guy is responsible for wiring any practical lights (typically wall
sconces and chandeliers) and outlets in the set. The fixtures guy may also be employed to build and
wire special fixtures for the gaffer (such as lights on a futuristic space vehicle). A good fixtures guy
knows a great deal about dealing with practicals and creating practical lighting effects for pro-
duction. One fixtures guy I know has bookshelves full of lightbulb and fixtures catalogs and is an
excellent resource for the gaffer when a little research is required for a specific problem.
Generator operator
The generator operator is in charge of the full-time operation and maintenance of the generator.
A knowledgeable, experienced generator operator is an extremely valuable person to the set lighting
4 CHAPTER 1 Set basics: Your first barbecue
department. This job was traditionally performed by a member of Local 40 (International Brother-
hood of Electrical Workers, IBEW), who are trained electricians. However, most genny operators
today are teamsters with special 40 cards. The production van driver typically operates the generators
on the tractor. To get a 40 card to operate a generator, all a teamster has to do is pay dues to IBEW.
There is no training, test, or apprenticeship program. As a result, you will find generator operators
who have no special knowledge or training about generators. These individuals are of absolutely
no use to you when a generator starts to hiccup. Especially when you are on a remote location where
a generator cannot be quickly replaced and you encounter issues with climate, fuel, and other condi-
tions that affect the generators, it is especially worthwhile for the gaffer and DP to insist on using a
qualified generator operator.
Grip department
Q: How many grips does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
A: Grips don’t change lightbulbs. That’s electric.
Nonelectrical lighting equipment is handled by our brothers and sisters in the grip department. A grip
is affectionately called a hammer. Silks, diffusion frames, flags, reflector boards, rigging, dollies and
dolly track, cranes, jib arms are all in the domain of gripology. Lights, dimmers, and generally things
with plugs are the domain of the juicers. You could say that the electricians do the lighting and the
grips do the shading. Each time an electrician sets up a light, a grip is right next to him or her with a
grip package, which includes a C-stand and whatever flags, nets, or diffusion frames may be needed
in front of the light. Electricians graduating from the nonunion world may be used to grips taking
charge of placing sandbags on the light stands, providing ladders, and leveling large stands when
they are placed on uneven ground. On union jobs in Los Angeles, the electricians generally handle
their own ladders, sandbags, and rigging hardware, such as pipe clamps. Grips handle gel and
diffusion when used on a frame or applied to windows. An electrician applies the gel and diffusion
when it goes directly on a light.
Grips are responsible for the safety of the rigging, and they are often called on to rig support for
lighting equipment and backdrops. Truss, I-beam rails, chain motors, speed-rail grids, wall spreaders,
and similar rigs are built by the grips. When lights are to be hung from an overhead grid or rigged to
the wall of the set, the grips generally rig the support. An electrician then clamps on the light, plugs
it in, and focuses it. When lights are mounted on a high platform, on top of parallels, in the basket of
an aerial lift (Condor, Snorkelift, etc.), or on an elevated platform, the grips rig and secure the light
and light stand. When an interior night scene needs to be shot during daylight hours at a practical
location, the grips build big black tents around the windows to create darkness outside,
while providing space for lights outside the building. During production the grips are in charge of
removing, and reinstalling set walls as needed during filming.
The head of the grip department is the key grip. The key grip supervises the grips in the same way
that the gaffer supervises the electricians. He or she works for the DP in tandem with the gaffer,
supervising the grips in the placement of grip gear in front of each light.
The key grip’s chief assistant is the best boy grip. The best boy grip coordinates the grip crew in
the same way that the best boy electric does the electric crew.
The dolly grip is in charge of operating moving-camera platforms, such as dollies and cranes:
laying and leveling the dolly track, moving the camera smoothly up and down and to and from exact
5Job descriptions of the lighting crew

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